Behaviourist

= **Behaviourist Learning Theory ** =

**Team members: ** //Gabriel S Konayuma, Senior Vocational Education & Training Officer, MSTVT, Zambia // //Munya Ndoro, Systems Analyst, ZESA, Zimbabwe // //Jarome Reitz, High School Teacher, Ceres, South Africa.//

**1. Definition of Behaviourist Learning Theory ** **Behaviourism **, also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behaviour), is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do—including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviours (Skinner, 1984). **Behaviourism ** as applied to learners is the idea that the learner is an empty container to be filled with “the learning”. What the learner does after learning is called his “behaviour.” The behaviour can be shaped by putting various things into the container and observing what happens (Focal Works, 2011). **Behaviorism ** is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. //tabula rasa//) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again. In contrast, //punishment// (both positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was done with animals (e.g. Pavlov’s dogs) and generalized to humans (Learning Theories, 2008).

The video below by Konayuma (2011) gives an introduction on behaviourism:

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**Radical behaviorism, **developed by Skinner, describes a particular school that emerged during the reign of behaviorism. It is distinct from other schools of behaviorism, with major differences in the acceptance of mediating structures, the role of emotions, etc.

Reitz (2011) highlights some of the key features of Behaviourism in the video below:

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**2. Key principles of Behaviourist Learning Theory ** (a) Learning is manifested by a change in behaviour. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">(b) environment shapes behaviour. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">(c) contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) as well as reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">new knowledge leads to change in behaviour. Once someone learns something it changes how they perceive something.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">Example: In South Africa & Zimbabwe good academic performance is found among in schools that were once pre-dominantly white, (A schools) in Zimbabwe.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">Repetition enforces the learning process. Sometimes this is done out of context since behaviourist believe that students can be taught best when the focus is directly on the content to be taught.

Ndoro (2011) explains more about the key principles of Behaviouist Learning in this video below:

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**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif';">3. Key theorists in Behaviourist Learning Theory ** <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">Originators and important contributors: John B. Watson <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Ivan Pavlov- Did his study with dogs where he used a bell to indicate the presence of food therefore stimulate a behavior which is the dogs salivating in anticipation, B.F. Skinner, E. L. Thorndike (connectionism), Bandura, Tolman (moving toward congnitivism). Skinner in his theory eluded to two types of for learning to take place: Classical conditioning and Operational conditioning. An action which results led to positive encouragement(reinforcement) will led to that action been repeated. Through step by step teaching on which every step can be positively reinforce learning can take place. The video below illustrates Operant Conditioning by Skinner:

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**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif';">4. Analysis of the learning theory of Skinner **

Skinners theory is bases on external motivation. The focus of the theory is on the individual. Instruction (either by teacher or any other tool) is the main focus of teaching. An action which results led to positive encouragement (reinforcement) will lead to that action been repeated (learning occurs then). Teaching and learning occurs by breaking down information, skills into smaller units. Learning takes place out of context. The structure of the theory is top to bottom (hierarchal). The Learning theory does not take into consideration the socio development of the child. There is also no internalization of concepts. The theory does not make reference to teacher development, especially in better teaching methods.

**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif';">5. **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif';"> **Key critiques** **of Behaviorist theory** Some of the key critiques that have been made against Behaviorist theory a) Learning is one-dimensional b) Learning cannot occurs without the use of reinforcement-a reaction to motivation or positive behaviour c) Holistic development of the child is neglected-the feelings moods and feelings of the learner is not taken in consideration. d) Learning is passive e) Child is just a receiver of information and then became a giver of the same information f) Teaching is out of context. g) The Teacher is the information giver.

**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif';">6. Relation of Skinner's learning theory to the use of ICTs in Education **

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">(a) Learning is manifested by a change in behaviour. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">(b) environment shapes behaviour. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">In an environment with ICTs the users sees the learning process in a new light and thus this effects a change in their behaviour. This give the sense that the gap between the learning environment and the outside world is bridged by the ICTs <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">(c) contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) as well as reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">With the use of ICTs reinforcement is easier as information is stored in its original form and can be easily made reference to at any time. New information is also made available that can support what is already there.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">When using ICTs more of the senses of the human being are being used. This stimulates change in behaviour as it is a more effective learning process. Visual, audio and hand co-ordinations versus just audio although this is all still instructional learning.

Before the age of computers Skinner develop his idea of the teaching machine. This was characterised by:
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">Breaking information and skills into small units
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">Providing regular feedback as well as encouragement
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">Teaching is direct
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">Direct or teacher centered instruction

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">The people: Ivan Pavlov, B F Skinner, and others
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">The word: Behaviourism **

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">**The good:** Gives the instructor full control <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">Izzet Kara did an experiment with grade 7 students to find out which method of instruction between the Traditional Instruction (TI) and Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) lead to better understanding and retention. During the experiment the teacher remained in full control of the content that was to be learned which was the same for both groups. The two groups started with the same pretest and after the delivery of the content the groups were given a post test and after 5 months the groups were given another test. It was found out that the group were CAI was used performed better in both the post test and the last test which proved that the more aids you use in the instruction the better the retention of learning.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">**The bad:** Thinks of learners as empty containers <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">B. F. Skinner proposed a teaching machine but the problem is that it does not have human qualities. The machine instructs the different set of activities. If the student does not understand the sequence of instruction then there is no one to explain. By using a teaching machine this theory views the student as an empty container that is there to receive and be filled with knowledge.

**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif';">7. Recommendations of where this theory may provide a useful explanation for how learning occurs when using particular ICT tools in specific ways **

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; text-align: justify;">The strengths of constructivism lie in its emphasis on learning as a process of personal understanding and the development of meaning where learning is viewed as the construction of meaning rather than as the memorization of facts. Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs provide many opportunities for constructivist learning through their student centered environments based on their context (Oliver, 2002). Given, that knowledge is constantly advancing; the design and development principles need to be aligned with teacher and students emerging requirements. The current trend in e-Learning is to provide cognitive tools, which can be adapted for intellectual partnerships among teachers and students and facilitate critical thinking and higher-order learning (Young, 2003) (Kundi & Nawaz, 2010).

This theory is also:
 * Effective for teaching a particular problem/concept in mathematics. By diving information into smaller units every bit can be thoroughly teach.
 * Effective for retention: Kara in her science experiment indicates how and when an ICT tool is been used as a assisted instruction retention is far more effective.
 * a good barometer for individual learning.


 * 8. References **

Focal Works (2011) // Learning Theories 101: What they mean. // Available from: []. Accessed: 25 July 2011.

Kara, I (2008) The Effect on Retention of Computer Assisted Instruction. // Journal of Instructional Psychology in Science Education //, 35(4):357-364.

Kundi, G. M. & Nawaz, A. (2010) From objectivism to social constructivism: The impacts of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on higher education. // Journal of Science and Technology Education Research // Vol. 1(2), pp. 30 - 36, July 2010. Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/JSTER.

Learning Theories (2008) Behaviorism. Available from: []. Accessed: 25 July 2011.

Millet, J. D. (1962) // Learning Theories //. Cited in Mathematics Education Reader, University of Zambia, 1989.

Skinner, B.F. (1984) [|"The operational analysis of psychological terms"]. // Behavioral and Brain Sciences // (4): 547–81. Available from: []. Accessed: 25 July 2011.

Wikipedia (2011) Learning Theory (Education). Available from: [|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)]. Accessed: 25 July 2011.