Cognitive-constructivist

=**Cognitive-Constructivist Learning Theory**=

David Kabugo Michelle Ludwig Tari Mukabeta
 * Team members:**

**1. Definition of Cognitive-Constructivist Learning Theory**
Provide a definition or two of the specific tradition of learning

"Cognitive constructivism" is about how the individual learner understands things, in terms of //developmental stages// and //learning styles.// Another definition starts from the work of Piaget, who demonstrated empirically that children’s minds were not empty, but actively processed the material with which they were presented, and postulated the mechanisms of //accommodation and assimilation //as key to this processing. (Atherton 2011)

"Piaget's theory is fundamental to cognitivism and to constructivism. His central idea is that "knowledge proceeds neither solely from the experience of objects nor from an innate programming performed in the subject but from successive constructions." (Fosnot, 1996).

Piaget (1985) proposed that the mechanism of learning is the process of equilibration, in which cognitive structure assimilates and accommodates to generate new possibilities when it is disturbed based on human's self-organizing tendency.

The theory is concerned about the development of different cognitive abilities at different embryo-genetic ages and stages. These transcend the physical body formation, through the nervous system, to the complete mental functions.

**2. Key principles of Cognitive-Constructivist Learning Theory**
Some key principles of the specific tradition of learning
 * Stages of Development
 * Assimilation, Accommodation, & Equilibration
 * Meaningful and authentic context

**3. Key theorists in Cognitive-Constructivist Learning Theory**
The key theorists in the specific tradition of learning:
 * **Jean Piaget** - Swiss developmental psychologist. Originally a biologist who studied molluscs and published many papers at a young age, but turned toward child psychology and particularly their development and how they came to know and understand things by observing them undertake his exercises (Atherton: 2011).

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 * Seymour Papert

**4. Analysis of the learning theory of Piaget**
Analyse the learning theory of one representative theorist in the specific tradition of learning
 * -Ages and stages of development - (component that predicts what children can and cannot understand at different stages of development. According to Piaget, there are four major stages of development namely; the pre verbal - at which stage, an object has no permanence, and when it disappears from the spatial field, it no longer exists in the minds of the learner and that learner does no attempt to find it. The second stage is what Piaget called representation. At this stage, a child uses a language of symbolic function. At the third stage which Piaget called a stage of concrete operations, the learner starts to re-organize their mind, and at the last stage, the learner starts to make hypothetical deductive operations.

If you are familiar with databases, you can think of assimilation this way: your mind has its database already built, with its fields and categories already defined. If it comes across new information which fits into those fields, it can assimilate it without any trouble. In Accommodation, the internal world has to accommodate itself to the evidence with which it is confronted and thus adapt to it, which can be a more difficult and painful process. In the database analogy, it is like what happens when you try to put in information which does not fit the pre-existent fields and categories. You have to develop new ones to accommodate the new information. [|assimilation and accomodation] > > That is the child is conceived as a scientist setting hypothesis and testing then by actively interacting with the world.
 * **Assimilation and accommodation**
 * A child acts on the world with expectations about consequent changes and when these are not met they enter into a state of disequilibrium. Thus they seek to retain an equilibrium state and so accommodate unexpected data or experience into their understanding of the concept under exploration. Works from a biological point of view stating that the way our bodies adjust to different environmental changes is the same way we learn. e.g. a child may grow up knowing that any four legged animal is a dog because they have not been exposed to any other but when they get exposed they may start by thinking that a cow is a dog and later on ifthe puzzle that they fit it in does not match they start noticing disequilibrium and find other means of reasoning in order to strike a balance.
 * ** Integration of reality into structure **

[|equilibration]
 * **Equilibration** - According to Piaget [1972], development is driven by the process of //equilibration// which is a balance between assimilation - where people process incoming information so that it fits within their existing thinking - and accommodation - where people adapt their thinking to incoming information. "It is thus an active process...a process of self-regulation...processes with feedback and feedforward, processes which regulate themselves by a progressive compensation of systems." (Piaget 1964 in Ripple 1964: 24)


 * **Meaningful Context** - This learning theory places emphasis on the student discovering (and thus learning) things within a meaningful and relevant context and not on the repetition of specific skills, thus learning tasks are not in isolation but rather situated within apropriate and applicable scenario. An ideal learning environment would be one where students can construct knowledge that is meaningful for them. Meaning is constructed as children interact in meaningful ways with the world around them. According to Atherton (2011), s tudents still learn these things in Piagetian classrooms, but they are more likely to learn them if they are engaged in meaningful activities (such as operating a class "store" or "bank" or writing and editing a class newspaper). Whole activities, as opposed to isolated skill exercises, authentic activities which are inherently interesting and meaningful to the student, and real activities that result in something other than a grade on a test or a "Great, you did well" from the computer lesson software, are emphasized in Piagetian classrooms. In a similar vein, Brown et al (1989) as cited in Mayes& de Freitas (2004:9) argued that we should consider concepts as //tools//, to be understood //through use//, rather than as self-contained entities to be delivered through instruction." Thus according to Järvinen (2001) just incorporating new knowledge is not enough in terms of the cognitive growth of children, but rather, the process needs to go through comparisons and manipulations, preferably taking place in a meaningful interactive context.

Vygosky

 * Development is a social process from birth onwards assisted by others(adults or peers) more competent in the skills and technologies available to the culture and development is fostered by collaboration within the child’s proximal development.

Bandura
> Yet, development among people may not be linear. Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the next stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play a role in the development of formal operations
 * Children primarily learn through imitation of models of their social environment and that the primary mechanism driving development is observation learning.
 * Study was merely focused on learning in young ones, but it also under estimated their abilities. Children of today can less egocentric (sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people)
 * The representativeness of Piaget's sample (3 children) is questionable
 * [Universality - tyring to make 1 principle fit all, significant cultural variances - more from Michelle]

**6. Relation of Piaget's learning theory to the use of ICTs in Education**
Relate this specific theory to the use of ICTs in Education by refering to at least one researcher (e.g.Papert 1982) who has used this theory and providing an:
 * explanation of a good example of how this theory has been appropriated to support learning in a technology-enhanced activity or program [Tari]
 * explanation of a poor example of how this theory has been appropriated to support learning in a technology-enhanced activity or program

**7. Recommendations of where this theory may provide a useful explanation for how learning occurs when using particular ICT tools in specific ways**
Make recommendations on where this theory may provide a useful explanation for how learning occurs when using particular ICT tools in specific ways. You can refer back to one researcher (e.g. Papert 1982) or draw on others, just remember to provide references!

Given the situational and contextural nature of this learning theory, ICT tools that lend themselves to this way of learning would be those that created a related context to work within.

Microworlds are a type of ICT designed as a game where one must make decisions and solve problems within but "a case study supported by a computer simulation." Chen (2011) elaborates further, "With microworlds, users experience the dynamics of key strategic issues found in a real case situation. A Microworld simulates changes over time-scales (maybe many years) where users (teams or individuals) must make strategic choices and live with the consequences of their decisions. They discover the considerable scope for triumph or disaster, and learn that the strategic destiny of their effort may be largely in their own hands."

United Nations scenario program that teaches and explores political science, but is also relevant to mulitculturalism, geography, historical sites, history, travel, etc.

Where computer literacy is the end goal, essentially any program that provides frequency of use for familiarity along with instructional 'games' would be employing this theory of learning.

Educators should deliberatelydesign authentic learning activities which are inherently interesting and meaningful to the student, and real activities that result in something other than a grade on a test or a comment such as 'well done', as in many computer drills and tutorials.

**8. References**
Include all the references you cite, using the Harvard style.

Atherton J S (2011) //Learning and Teaching; Piaget's developmental theory// [On-line: UK] Available:__http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm__ __[__25 July 2011]

Chen I (2011) Cognitive Constructionist Theories [Online] Available: [|http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm] [25 July 2011]

Fosnot, C. T. (1996). (Ed.) //Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice//. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

 Järvinen, E (2001) Education about and through technology: In search of more appropriate pedagogical approaches to technology education. Available online: http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514264878/

Mays, T & de Freitas, S (2004) JISC e-Learning Models Desk Study: Stage 2: Review of e-learning theories, frameworks and models. Available online: http://www.jisc.ac.uk

Piaget, J (1964) Developing and learning. In Ripple, RE & Rockcastle VN (Eds.), //Piaget Rediscovered - Selected papers from a report of the conference of Cognitive Studies and Curriculum Development// (March 1964), Cornell University NY. Reprinted in Gauvain, M & Cole, M. 1997. Readings on the development of children, New York: WH Freeman, 2nd Edition. Chapter 3.

Piaget, J. (1972). //The Child and Reality//. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books.

Piaget, J. (1985). //The equilibration of cognitive structures//. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.